Cardiology

A comprehensive overview of the anatomy of the heart and surrounding structures explains the chambers, valves, septa, coronary arteries, veins, and great vessels. Surface anatomy and anatomical landmarks relevant to clinical examination are discussed, along with variations in cardiac anatomy and common congenital anomalies. The spatial relationship of the heart to nearby organs and its relevance in imaging, interventions, and surgery is emphasized, with clinical correlations highlighted.

Key Topics:
• Structural Cardiology
• Surgical Cardiology
• Diagnostic Imaging

The physiological principles that enable the heart to function as a pump are explained, covering the cardiac cycle, phases of systole and diastole, and heart sounds. Concepts of stroke volume, cardiac output, and ejection fraction are discussed, along with regulation of heart rate and blood pressure through neural and hormonal mechanisms. Hemodynamic principles such as preload, afterload, and contractility are explored, including physiological adaptations to exercise and stress and clinical implications of altered cardiac physiology.

Core Themes:
• Basic Sciences in Cardiology
• Exercise & Sports Cardiology
• Preventive Cardiology

The electrical activity of the heart at cellular and organ levels is explained, including the role of ion channels and action potentials in cardiac muscle cells. The cardiac conduction system, comprising the SA node, AV node, and bundle branches, is detailed. Normal impulse generation and propagation, mechanisms leading to conduction delays and abnormal rhythms, and the relationship between electrophysiology and mechanical contraction are highlighted, emphasizing clinical relevance to arrhythmias and ECG interpretation.

Specialized Topics:

• Clinical Electrophysiology
• Emergency Cardiology
• Specialized Cardiology

Principles, techniques, and clinical significance of electrocardiography are presented, explaining lead placement, waveform components, intervals, and axis determination. A structured approach to ECG interpretation is taught, including normal patterns, age-related variations, and common technical errors or artifacts. The role of ECG in screening, diagnosis, and monitoring is emphasized, with clinical examples reinforcing learning.

Learning Points:
• Diagnostic Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology
• Emergency & Critical Care

Disorders of heart rhythm and rate are discussed, with arrhythmias classified by origin and heart rate. ECG features of common supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias, clinical symptoms such as palpitations and syncope, and potential complications including stroke and sudden cardiac death are highlighted. Risk stratification, identification of dangerous arrhythmias, and principles of acute and long-term management are introduced.

Featured Areas:
• Electrophysiology
• Critical Care Cardiology
• Interventional Cardiology

Hypertension is explained as a major cardiovascular risk factor, including its classification, epidemiology, and causes of primary and secondary hypertension. Pathophysiological mechanisms leading to elevated blood pressure, target organ damage involving the heart, brain, kidneys, and eyes, and techniques for accurate blood pressure measurement are discussed. Lifestyle interventions, pharmacological treatment, and the importance of long-term monitoring are emphasized.

Special Focus:
• Preventive Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology
• Geriatric Cardiology

The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and its effect on coronary arteries are discussed, along with risk factors including lifestyle and metabolic conditions. Clinical manifestations of myocardial ischemia and angina, diagnostic methods such as ECG, stress testing, and imaging, and preventive strategies and risk factor modification are highlighted. Long-term management, secondary prevention, and the impact of coronary artery disease on quality of life are emphasized.

Highlights:
• Interventional Cardiology
• Preventive Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology

Unstable angina and myocardial infarction are explained, including mechanisms of plaque rupture, thrombosis, and myocardial injury. Typical and atypical clinical presentations, ECG changes associated with ischemia and infarction, and the role of cardiac biomarkers in diagnosis are discussed. Emergency assessment, early intervention strategies, and short-term and long-term complications are highlighted.

Key Insights:
• Emergency Cardiology
• Interventional Cardiology
• Critical Care

Heart failure is described as a complex clinical syndrome, with causes and classification into systolic and diastolic types. Pathophysiological changes leading to fluid overload and reduced cardiac output, common symptoms and signs, and diagnostic investigations including imaging and laboratory tests are discussed. Principles of pharmacological and non-pharmacological management, along with patient education and follow-up, are emphasized.

Clinical Highlights:
• Clinical Cardiology
• Specialized Cardiology
• Geriatric Cardiology

Valvular heart diseases involve dysfunction of one or more heart valves, leading to stenosis, regurgitation, or mixed lesions. Etiologies include congenital defects, rheumatic heart disease, degenerative changes, and infective endocarditis. Clinical features such as murmurs, dyspnea, and fatigue are discussed. Diagnostic tools including echocardiography, Doppler studies, and imaging are emphasized. Management strategies cover medical therapy, interventional procedures, and surgical options. Long-term monitoring and patient education are highlighted.

Core Highlights:
• Clinical Cardiology
• Specialized Cardiology
• Basic Sciences in Cardiology

Congenital heart diseases are structural abnormalities of the heart present at birth. Pathophysiology, classification, and common lesions such as septal defects, Tetralogy of Fallot, and transposition of great arteries are discussed. Clinical presentation, diagnostic imaging, and timing of interventions are emphasized. Surgical and catheter-based treatment strategies, long-term follow-up, and complications are highlighted. Multidisciplinary care is essential for optimizing outcomes in pediatric and adult patients.

Special Focus Areas:

• Specialized Cardiology
• Pediatric Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology

Cardiomyopathies are diseases of the heart muscle affecting structure and function. Types include dilated, hypertrophic, restrictive, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Etiology, genetic factors, and pathophysiology are discussed. Clinical manifestations, diagnostic imaging, and laboratory investigations are emphasized. Management strategies include pharmacologic therapy, device implantation, and advanced interventions. Risk stratification and prevention of sudden cardiac death are highlighted.

Featured Topics:
• Specialized Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology
• Emergency & Future Cardiology

Diseases of the pericardium, including pericarditis, pericardial effusion, and constrictive pericarditis, are explored. Etiology, pathophysiology, and clinical features such as chest pain, dyspnea, and pericardial rubs are discussed. Diagnostic imaging and laboratory investigations are emphasized. Management strategies cover medical therapy, pericardiocentesis, and surgical interventions. Long-term follow-up and complications, including cardiac tamponade, are highlighted.

Specialized Highlights:
• Clinical Cardiology
• Specialized Cardiology
• Emergency & Future Cardiology

Cardiac imaging techniques are essential for diagnosis, treatment planning, and monitoring of heart diseases. Modalities include echocardiography, CT, MRI, nuclear imaging, and intravascular imaging. Principles, indications, advantages, and limitations of each modality are discussed. Imaging findings in structural, congenital, and ischemic heart diseases are emphasized. Integration of imaging into clinical decision-making and interventional planning is highlighted.

Learning Focus:
• Clinical Cardiology
• Specialized Cardiology
• Emergency & Future Cardiology

Preventive cardiology focuses on reducing cardiovascular risk through lifestyle modification, early detection, and risk factor management. Topics include dyslipidemia, diabetes, obesity, smoking cessation, and hypertension. Strategies for primary and secondary prevention are emphasized. Screening, patient education, and community-based interventions are discussed. Evidence-based approaches to improving cardiovascular outcomes are highlighted.

Key Focus Areas:
• Preventive & Lifestyle Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology
• Basic Sciences in Cardiology

Pediatric cardiology covers the diagnosis and management of heart diseases in infants and children. Congenital and acquired heart conditions, growth-related cardiovascular issues, and early interventions are discussed. Diagnostic modalities including echocardiography and catheterization are emphasized. Interventional and surgical treatment strategies are highlighted. Long-term follow-up, quality of life, and multidisciplinary care are central to optimal outcomes.

Core Insights:
• Specialized Cardiology
• Pediatric Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology

Geriatric cardiology focuses on cardiovascular care in elderly patients, considering comorbidities, frailty, and polypharmacy. Common conditions include heart failure, atrial fibrillation, valvular diseases, and ischemic heart disease. Age-related physiological changes and their impact on diagnosis and management are emphasized. Tailored pharmacologic and interventional strategies are discussed. Preventive measures, risk assessment, and quality-of-life considerations are highlighted.

Special Highlights:
• Specialized Cardiology
• Geriatric Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology

Acute cardiac emergencies, including myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, cardiac arrest, and cardiogenic shock, are discussed. Rapid assessment, stabilization, and intervention strategies are emphasized. Diagnostic approaches, triage, and emergency management protocols are highlighted. Multidisciplinary team coordination and post-emergency care are essential. Case-based discussions provide practical insights for optimal outcomes.

Key Insights:
• Emergency & Future Cardiology
• Clinical Cardiology
• Specialized Cardiology

Advances in technology, precision medicine, and innovative interventions are shaping the future of cardiology. Topics include artificial intelligence, digital health, wearable devices, regenerative therapies, and minimally invasive procedures. Ethical, regulatory, and implementation considerations are discussed. Emerging diagnostic and therapeutic strategies are highlighted. Emphasis is placed on improving patient outcomes, accessibility, and efficiency in cardiovascular care.

Highlights of Innovation:

• Emergency & Future Cardiology
• Specialized Cardiology
• Preventive & Lifestyle Cardiology